EXAMINING
THE EVOLUTION THEORY
INTRODUCTION
Evolution is the theory that has taken the attention
of the entire theist of twenty first century, because it has removed god from being
the reason for the existence of universe and the life in it. It has been taught
in the school as science and true. Before the arrival of this theory atheists had
no another valuable explanation to the existence of the universe and the origin
of the life in the planet. It was continuing until the time of Darwin who
explained the evolution with scientific explanation as to how the life evolved
in this universe. This became a stand point for all those who did not believe
in god to be the creator of the universe and the life on the earth. Then arose
the believing group of people against this theory and sought for the proof. At
present, evolution claims to be the scientifically proven theory with lots of
evidence. And now the evolution has secured its place with support of some
scientist (who are basically atheist) and stand out as the only possible
explanation for the existence of universe and the life found in it. Therefore
it has made it easy for the people to say that evolution explains everything
and now we need no god. The purpose of this paper is to examine the origin,
history, processes, kinds, scientific validity of the evidence for evolution, and
also to know whether or not it disproves God.
1.
DEFINITION
According to Heather Scoveille
Evolution is a scientific theory that essentially states species get changed over
time. Though there are many ways by which species change, natural selection was
the mechanism by which the process of evolution was explained.[1]Wikipedia
states that evolution is the change in the inherited characteristic of species
successive generation. Mainly, this process gives raise to the diversity at
biological organisation, species, individual organism and molecules which
includes DNA and protein.[2]
2. HISTORICAL
DEVELOPMENT
Even today people have been thinking that it is
Darwin who formulated the theory of evolution. But the origin and the
development of the evolution theory goes a long way back from the time of
Darwin. It contains a long term history. Basically it can be divided in to two parts:
part one is time before renaissance and part two is time after renaissance.
2.1 Development
of Evolution Theory before Renaissance
The early development of theory evolution began with
ancient philosophes Anaximander (611-547), Aristotle (384-322), and Lucretius
(99-55). These are those who coined the idea that all the living things are
related and had changed over the time. Even that time, Aristotle had developed
his scalanaturae (ladder of life) in
which he explains the advancement of living thing from inanimate matter to
plants, then animal, and the man. This idea made man as the crown of all the
creation. The scientist who came after post- Aristotelian period were
constrained by the prevailing thought of middle age – inerrancy of genesis
chapter one and the creation of world in literal six days of 24 hours per-day. In
the middle of 16th century the archbishop James Ussher of Ireland
dated the age of the earth and added it in front page of bible. It was believed
until the time of Leonardo Da Vinci (painter of the last supper, and the Mona
Lisa). He had doubted the “truth of 5000” year old earth and went further to
evaluate sedimentation rates in the Po River of Italy. Finally he concluded
that it took 200,000 years to form some nearby rock deposits. James Hutton the
father of modern geology came up with statement that earth cannot be 5000 years
old. According to Hutton it cannot explain many geological structure and
processes if the earth is only 5000 years old. He believed in the slow change
over the time and he put this idea in his book called Principle of geology,
which had a great impact on Darwin.[3]
2.2 Development
of Evolution Theory after Renaissance
In the middle of late 17th century
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comete de Buffon proposed the idea that species could change,
and for the support that a forty-four volume of natural history of all know
animal and plants were presented. This became a hammer that broke the
foundation of belief that all the species were created by a prefect being and
therefore could not change because they were perfect. In his writing Buffon
also had mentioned that evolutionary change can be caused by many factors such
as environment, migration geographical isolation, overcrowding, and struggle
for survival.
Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802) proposed the idea that
life had changed over the time. He believed in the possibility common decent,
which was based on the changes undergone by the animals during the development,
artificial selection by human. Though he was the grandfather of Darwin but he
did not offer any mechanism to explain the evolution. William smith (1769-1839)
developed that principal of biological succession. According to this believe
each period of earth history has unique assemblages of fossils. Abraham Werner
and Baron George (1769-1832) promoted the theory catastrophism. According to
catastrophism the earth and geological event are the result of some great
catastrophe (sudden change).
Jean de Lamarck (1744-1829) is the one to develop
the first theory on how species changed. He believe that organism of higher
complexity had evolved from less complex organism.[4]
Right after the time of Lamarck a new idea natural selection was proposed,
which changed everything altogether. The idea that was given by Lamarck had
faced some challenge because it did not have the mechanism to explain how it
develops. At this time there were two people who developed the same idea
(natural selection). Those were Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace who developed
the idea that evolution through the mechanism called natural selection.[5]
3. PROCESSES
OF EVOLUTION
Namely, at first the theory of evolution was
explained by one processes of mechanism. But at the turn of nineteenth century
people began to realise that the one processes of mechanism does not explain
everything about evolution. As a
result of this people came up with different mechanism that which could
possibly explain the whole processes of evolution. At the end of nineteenth
century mainly we had four processes mechanism. They are such as natural
selection, mutation, genetic drift, and migration (gene flow).
3.1 Natural
Selection
Natural selection is the mechanism which Darwin
proposed to explain as to how the processes of evolution occur. According to
Darwin natural selection helps to have the new species in long term period of
time. Natural selection occurs in the organism that exists. Every organism reproduces
more population with much variation, and the species with variation will have
the more capacity to survive. The capacity for the survival is inheritable from
the parents and it passes to the generation. The species with the variation
will select to breed with another variation and thus will have new species,
later this will be common in the species.[6]The
natural selection happens only if four conditions are met. They are such as
reproduction, heredity, variation in individual’s characters, and variation in
fitness.[7]
3.2 Mutation
Darwin believed that species always change as the
result of natural selection. But, at the turn of the century the Genetics made
an observation on the variation of species and found something different. When
Darwin explained the natural selection he had no explanation for the variation
that he found in the population. This was the question of the Neo- Darwinist
and they came with answer as to how the variation occurs in the population.
That mechanism is called mutation.[8]
The theory of mutation was proposed by a Dutch
botanist called Hugo De Vries in 1901. Since Darwin had discarded the variation
in the population Devries is the one who gave the important to the variation.
Though devries thought the theory of mutation will go against Darwin, but it
merged into natural selection. According to De Vries mutation is a sudden,
large changes happening in the living organism. Mutations are two types,
chromosomal and gene mutation. Devries is unlike Darwin, but believed that
mutation can cause sudden appearance of new species with heredity.[9]
3.3 Genetic
Drift
Though some has considered the genetic drift as
major mechanism for evolution, but many considered it as less important one for
the processes of evolution. Genetic drift (also called as allelic drift) is a
change in the frequency of allele in a population due to random sampling.
Genetic drift can completely remove the genetic variation from the given
population.[10]
The genetic drift mostly occurs in the small group
of population but it happens less with large group of population. Genetic drift
happens on random chance and is affected by many factors such as breeding
population size, the geographical spread and consequence isolation of breeding groups,
ecological disasters such as famine, epidemics, volcanoes and earthquakes, and
asteroid strikes.[11]
3.4 Migration
In population genetic the term migration is also known as gene flow. On the earth all the species
have been located into the group subpopulations. In migration the gene will
flow from one subpopulation to another subpopulation and thus there will be new
generation with new gene. The migration (gene flow) happens in almost all the
organism when they happen to move out. [12]
4. KINDS
OF EVOLUTION
When we hear the word evolution we think of only one
kind. But evolutionists have divided the evolution into three kinds. They are
such as divergent, convergent, and parallel.
4.1 Divergent
Divergent evolution is a well-known kind. According
to evolutionist it happens in one species, which eventually separate into two
different species. For instance, sometime group of birds migrate to another
place and meanwhile few birds happen to be left behind or taken by the wind. So
now these birds will develop a character that which will help them to have
better survival in the new place. And now these birds are new species and
different from their group and ancestors.
4.2 Convergent
This kind of evolution is bit hard for some to
understand. Convergent evolution explains about how two or more species can
develop similar traits in separate types of environment. for instance,
evolutionist believe that there was no common ancestor for all winged animals,
and therefore all these animals had developed wings on their own due to their
individual environment through generation of evolution. And they also believe
that wings were developed not on a pre- programmed internal blueprint handed
down form a similar ancestor but based on physics.
4.3 Parallel
Convergent and parallel evolutions are similar and
confusing one at first look. Parallel evolution happens when two separate
species live in same environment and develop same adaptation for survival. This
evolution can be noticed in the plants in the wilderness. For instance, North
American cactus and the African euphorbia are the two separate plants which live
in same environment and adapt same adaptation for survival: the ability to
store the water and sharp quills towards the predators.[13]
When the evolution theory was present as the
ultimate explanation for life on the earth it had to face the criticism of
science and the philosophies of that time. Since it was not accepted by science
and philosophies, the evolutionist attempted to arrange more evidence for evolution
theory so that it may be accepted. At
the same time there arose some critics and controversies (based on science)
against evolution. As a result of that, many researches and findings took
place, which eventually were taken to be the evidence for evolution. And now,
therefore, it seems that evolution has explained everything including the
origin of life. But at the same time, we have a group of voices that roar against
the evolution theory for it seems irrelevant to their viewpoint. Since we are
left with no certainty of whether or not evolution theory is right, a crucial examination
over the evidences that are for and against evolution has become compulsory.
5.
EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION
When the evolution theory was present as the
ultimate explanation for life on the earth it had to face the criticism of
science and the philosophies of that time. Since it was not accepted by science
and philosophies, the evolutionist attempted to arrange more evidence for
evolution theory so that it may be accepted.
At the same time there arose some critics and controversies (based on
science) against evolution. As a result of that, many researches and findings
took place, which eventually were taken to be the evidence for evolution. And
now, therefore, it seems that evolution has explained everything including the
origin of life. But at the same time, we have a group of voices that roar against
the evolution theory for it seems irrelevant to their viewpoint. Since we are
left with no certainty of whether or not evolution theory is right, a crucial examination
over the evidences that are for and against evolution has become compulsory.
5.1. Natural
Selection
Natural selection was the first mechanism by which
the process of evolution was explained. According to this one species get
changed into another species by natural selection (we have seen it above
–natural selection). In one way it (natural selection) seems right because it
explains about the changes within the species that are observed and proved
scientifically. But we have problem with the second claim which assumes the
evolution of new species through the natural selection. But the fact is that we
cannot qualify this claim at cost, because it got so many flaws in it.
5.1.1. Variation Ranges
According to the evolutionist, the natural selection
always stands as a means for the changes of species on the higher level. but
the changes that evolutionist are talking about are happening only within the species, and never resulted in creating
totally a new species. For instance we have dogs which are the result of cross
breeding, but yet they remain dogs, and never became cat or cow. So this is not
an unknown thing to people of Darwin’s time and even to the people of olden day.
Even for centuries the same things have been happening without generating a new
species. Therefore the natural selection mechanism makes no sense when it said
to be agent for having new species.
5.1.2 Challenges to Evolutionary Change
In natural selection, we have learned about the
variations in species and evolution of new species which are standing different
from parents. So evolutionist say, the variations in the species will be led by
the natural selection into the evolution of new species, which will be too
different the true one. But the scientific reality makes this claim impossible,
because, according to scientific observation when a new individual is born with
traits that are too far from the species norm, it dies, and never become a new species
5.1.3 Distinct Species
Despite of all the positive explanation, natural
selection still works against evolutionary process concerning the variations in
species. Evolutionist believe that natural selection fashions new species and letting
it to wander away the from basis species. If the natural selection was true,
then there should have been no distinct species. But the matter of fact is
that, all that we have seen and all that we see are distinct and definite
creatures. Natural selection also has many other barriers that which can’t be
crossed over (which we will discuss later in evidence against evolution).
Through the discussion that we had above, we are left with no option apart from
concluding that natural selection cannot be the mechanism which directed whole
evolutionary process all species.[14]
5.2 Mutation
Mutation is another mechanism which
came right after the time of Charles Darwin to explain as to how new species
evolves from one that exists. There were some evolutionists who thought that
natural selection alone cannot make the process of evolution complete, and felt
the need of some other mechanism that which may fill the space that the natural
evolution had failed fill. As we know, natural selection explains only how the
new variations come together and produces new population, but it did not
explain how the variation occurs. In 1901 Hugo De Vries proposed a mechanism
called mutation. According to evolutionist mutation brings changes in the
species which eventually result in forming new species. But there are clear
–cut facts which falsify the claims of the evolutionist regarding mutation.
5.2.1 Rare Effect
The first fact is that the mutation
is very rare and not very often. The very rarity beneficial of mutation ends
the possibility of producing fruitful member of plants and animals found in the
world. Since this is the problem with mutation, it is very hard to believe that
the mutation to have produced all the necessary traits of even one life form.
Therefore we cannot count the mutation to be true mechanism for evolution of
new species, and for each plants and animals have millions of specific
characteristics.
5.2.2. Random Effects
One thing that we need to notice
about mutations is that they are always random. They have never been purposed
or directed. If mutation is random then it is just a kind of wild event, and
the good result cannot be predicted and least expected. and if the mutation is
right as evolutionist claims, then we should not be seeing millions of
characteristics in one living thing that are special, needed for the function
of species alone.
5.2.3 Very Harmful not Helpful
In fact, evolution is a process which always looking
forward to the improvement and progress, not injury and damage. But the results
of mutations always are harmful. In most instances they only weaken and damage the
organism badly. As a result of that damage the organism finally vanish away. In
that case, even if the organism happens to survive it does not produce a strong
offspring which can survive. Since mutation is harmful it will ultimately
eliminate the organism instead of improving.
From this discussion, one thing has
become very obvious that mutations in the organism are harmful not beneficial.
The beneficial mutation has never been recorded, not even once. Even at recent
time, there took place many fruit –fly experiment under the intense of
radiation, yet they could not find one beneficial mutation. Thus we can
conclude that mutation cannot be the mechanism that brings variation in spices as
it was claimed by evolutionist.[15]
5.3 Fossils Record
The fossil record has been
considered to be one of the most common and strong evidence for the evolution.
Through the fossil record, evolutionists have tried to established validity of
evolution theory. When the look at the fossils they found the some similarity
between all the species, therefore they went on to explain that we all have one
common ancestor. But there are many other facts about the fossil record which
can expose the claims of evolutionist. The problem with evolution theory is
that it relies upon the slow process of change in the organism to have a new
species evolved. If this theory was true then it should have contain the
intermediate fossil forms that are between two different species. But this is
not what the fossil record shows. Along with this there are many other facts
concerning fossil which reveals the flaws in evolution.[16]
5.3.1 Problems in the Cambrian
fossils.
The Cambrian strata are considered
to be the oldest strata. According to Richard Dawkins it is 600 million years
old[17].
If evolution was true, then the animals of the lowest strata should have lived
with fewer complexes, less developed, and few in numbers. But fossils that we
have found from the Cambrian strata totally disagree with evolution.
Lowest levels are just as complex: The
fossils that are found at the lowest strata show high complexity of the species
of that time. The collection of fossils of the species contains a variety of
creature from every phylum, and each one of them had the complicated internal
structures. In reality, it is impossible for any evolutionist imagine such a
complexity in the animals that were found at the lowest strata. Therefore the
complexity of the animals that are found at the lowest strata would strongly
question the possibility of evolution of the species.
Sudden appearance of million life
forms: In the Cambrian fossils, scientists have found sudden appearance of
billions of fossils which covers a thousand different life forms. But the Precambrian stratum, which is below
the Cambrian, contains no fossils other than an occasional alga. So the
different between these two strata is as heaven and earth.
If the evolution was true, then why
don’t we find any fossils that are between these two strata, and which could
have been the result of evolutionary process. So the sudden appearance of these
distinct life forms makes one thing clear that there were no evolutionary
processes that lead species to distinct way in which they were found. There
were not only smaller and slower moving creature but also larger creature like
Tigers, salmon, lions, pine trees, hawks, squirrels, and horses had appeared
suddenly. The distinct observation over
Cambrian fossils makes one thing clear that there were no transitional species.
5.3.2 Fossils Gaps
The fossils collections have become
one of the most significant findings of over a century of digs. The collections
of the fossils from thousands of museums would amount over 100 million. Among
all the fossils, we find only distinct species; no half species. In order for
evolutionary theory to be correct, the transitional specie which is between
true and new species should have been found in massive numbers. But the sad
part is that, there is none, not even single species has been found.
5.3.3 Stasis
Stasis is another important factor
which has to be taken into notice. Stasis means to recall a certain form or to
remain unchanged. If we look at the fossils collection, each creature appears with
a certain shape and structure and it continues on for millions of years through
several strata. In the company of that, some has extinct and other continues to
live up to present time. There are some other species about which the
evolutionist said it to have become extinct millions of years ago-but then it
is found alive today. Therefore , if the species have evolved by the process
the evolution as it was claimed by evolutionist, then the question arise- why
do we have certain species in distinct form for millions of years?[18]
5.4 Common Ancestor
The argument for common ancestor has
been considered as one of the most power full argument in support of evolution.
From the beginning, the evolutionists have observed the similarities between
man and apes. This has led them to think that ape could be the ancestor of man.
But later they observed similarities in all the species and came to the
conclusion that all species could have evolved from one ancestor. Thus they try
to establish the foundation for evolution by proving the claim about common
ancestor. But when we look at the arguments for common ancestor it has many
flaws and failings, which make it insignificant point.
There are five things that we need
to keep in our mind when discuss the argument for the common ancestor: they are
such as similar and different structure, convergence (similarities in different
species), divergence (different in similar species), mimicry (copying other
species), pentadactyl limp (classic five bone), gene barrier. When we look at
species, we not only find the similarity but also the difference in the
structure and organs. We are also able look at some different plants with
similar things and some similar plants with variation. So this (the
similarities in the plants and animals) have become the evidence for the
evolutionist to assume that every species has a common ancestor and it could be
only because of evolution. All these assumption of the evolutionist are
trembled heavily by one thing called gene barrier. Genes are very unique and
different in every kind of animal, and it differs even man to man. Genes are
the one that controls the structure, function, and appearance of the organism. So
the variations and similarities found in the species are result of the gene
that species carries. And since the genes are differing from species to species
the similarities that we find in the species make no valued argument for
evolution.[19]
5.5 Chemical Evolution (Spontaneous Generation)
Chemical evolution is an event
which was believed to have taken place some billion years ago. With this above
assumption the evolutionists have tried to explain the origin of first life on
the planet. Chemical evolution is also called spontaneous generation. According
to this view earth was situated in such a perfect way from which the formation
of the amino acids could develop by itself, which later developed into DNA and
ultimately into a complex cells. This process is believed to have happened over
billion years ago and assumed to have supported by the sun, volcanic activity,
and other naturalist processes.
In order to prove the spontaneous
generation many experiment have been conducted. One of the most notable experiment
was conducted by Stanley l. miller
Harold c. 1953, in which he attempt to show that in given proper amount of
chemical, heat and electricity ,life could eventually arise on its own in
a sealed environment . But the only
things that were produced are amino acids, which are considered to be only the
building blocks of life.[20]
There are some three critical
problems with this chemical evolution. First, it is a disproved theory. Once up
on a time, people believed that living thing could originate from non-living
thing. But this belief was simply disproven by Francesco Redi and Louis
Pasteur. Francesco Redi (1668) and Louis Pasteur(1864) attempted so many
masterful experiments and arrived at the conclusion that only pre-existing microbes could give rise to
other microbes. Second, there is no evidence that such a soup (chemical) form
ever existed on this earth. No one could ever find massive sediments that which
is containing enormous amounts of the various nitrogenous organic compounds,
amino acids, purines, and pyrimidine. So
such claim about the soup form has become invalid. Third, the origin of the
life form likely to be older than the earth itself under the evolutionary mode.
According to evolution, the life began with less complexity and later it
evolved into more complexity. For instance, there is another conclusion on
life’s complexity, according to that, it took roughly 5 billion years
for life to reach the complexity of bacteria. So when we trace back the
beginning of the complexity of the life the origin of the life turn to be 2.7
time older than earth itself. If we extrapolate
this rate backwards in time, we will arrive at the conclusion that life began
even before earth was born, possibly shortly after the big bang. [21]
6. EVIDENCE AGAINST EVOLUTION
6.1 Complexity of DNA
Discovery of the DNA has become one
of the most important discoveries of 20th century. It has left a
powerful impact on the biological research. This discovery has brought quandary
and confusion to evolutionary scientist. If the entire evolutionist would have
admitted the full implication of DNA, it would have brought a total destruction
to the evolution theory. As we know that evolution is a process that occurs by random
chance. So the admitting of full implication of DNA will question the possibility
of evolution. In fact, the barrier of the multibillions DNA code and the rare
possibility of life to have been evolved by random chance made evolutionary
process as an illusion.
DNA is an inheritance code carrier
in the living being. The recent scientific discovery about the function and
parts of DAN has made everyone to astonish at the way it functions.in a true
sense DNA has become a kind of massive information container. If we translate those
instructions into English, it will fill some unabridged dictionary. It also has
a special way of dividing and combining the things within the DNA.
The working pattern of the DNA is
utterly complexity. In order to form a protein in DNA, the DNA molecule has to
direct the placement of amino in a certain specific order in molecule made up
of hundreds of units. The difficult part is, for each placement the DNA must
chose correct acids from some twenty different amino acids. The requirement of the
translation package in DNA makes the random evolution a less possible event. Without
this translation package, the information in the DNA could not be applied to
the issues and it would result in instant death. This wonderful information
about the DNA has questioned probability of formation of DNA by random chance.[22]
6.2 Natural Law against Evolution
Evolution theory seems to have less
probability when we study the second law thermodynamics. Some evolutionist even
believes that evolution surpasses the second law of thermodynamics. They always
look forward to have some alternation and adjustment in the second law of
thermodynamics. But the perfect study on the second law of thermodynamics would
open up the understanding of people to see the clear cut evidence against
evolution.
The first notable thing in the
second law is that it never brakes down under any circumstances so that some
alternation may take place. So there is nothing that which can interrupt the
effect of the second. The second law applies to all the region of the universe,
and there is no place where it is not apply. In the scientific sphere, it is one
of the most fundamental, best-established laws in the midst of all the
scientific laws. This is one of most secure generalization law that we have in
scientific field. It applies to the whole world, cosmic universe, and
sub-atomic particles, even to all closed and open system.
Entropy is the effect that was
produced by the second law of thermodynamic. Entropy begins to increase with
any physical change that takes place by itself. If the evolution is physical
change which took place by itself, then it simply falls into the effect of
second law of thermodynamics. According to second law, entropy takes every
physical change from order to disorder. According to the claims of evolutionist,
the evolution surpasses the effect of second law, because evolution is processes
of development towards complexity. But the matter of fact is that we have never
found any evidence for violating second law. Therefore, the evidence has become
very obvious about evolution that it must be only an imaginary process that has
believed to have happened in the past.[23]
CONCLUSION
With a clear distinction, the above
discussions over evolution have led everyone to realize many terrible facts of
evolution. The essence of whole discussion on the evolution has let us to realize
one thing that the entire process of evolution can be divided into two parts:
they are basically micro (change with in the species) and macro (change in
above species) evolution. The evidences for micro evolution were observed all
over whereas the evidences for macro evolution were at want. For over centuries,
theory of evolution (macro) has been given the whole credit by the people and
scientist as of a proven scientific theory. But in reality, evolutionists have
failed to provide the solid proof for what they claim about evolution. However,
there were some facts that evolutionist have used in order to prove their claims
about evolution. When we evaluated validity of those claims, one thing has
become very clear that evidences for evolution were very shallow and blurred. When
we carefully looked at the evidences for the reliability of evolutionary
process in past and present, we had to arrive one conclusion that which would totally
turned against the possibility of evolutionary processes of all time. Since
evolution in the past and present has not been observed and proven, the
question remains unanswered unto which evolution was believed to be the answer.
Therefore, the possibility of evolutionary process on this earth is questionable
without any doubt.
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